Structures

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Objectives

This section contains some very advanced but important
features of the C programming language.

Having read this section you should be able to:

1. program using a structure rather than several arrays.



2. how pointer can be used in combination with structures to
   form linked list.

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Structures

The array is an example of a data structure. It takes simple data
types like int, char or

double and organises them into a linear array of
elements. The array serves most but not all of the needs of the
typical C program. The restriction is that an array is
composed of elements all of the same type. At first this seems
perfectly reasonable. After all why would you want an array to be
composed of twenty chars and two
ints? Well this sort of mixture of data types
working together is one of the most familiar of data structures.
Consider for a moment a record card which records name,
age and salary. The name would have to be stored as
a string, i.e. an array of chars terminated with an ASCII
null character, and the age and salary could be

ints.

At the moment the only way we can work with this collection of
data is as separate variables. This isn't as convenient as a
single data structure using a single name and so the
C language provides struct. At first it is
easier to think of this as a record - although it's a little more
versatile than this suggests.

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Defining A New Type

Declaring a struct is a two-stage process. The
first stage defines a new data type that has the required
structure which can then be used to declare as many variables
with the same structure as required. This two-stage process is
often confusing at first - especially as it results in the need
to think up multiple names with the same general meaning - but it
really is quite simple. For example, suppose we need to store a
name, age and salary as a single structure. You would first
define the new data type using:

struct emprec
 {
   char name[25];
   int age;
   int pay;
 };

and then you would declare a new variable:

struct emprec employee

Notice that the new variable is called
employee and it is of type emprec
which has been defined earlier. You see what we mean about
duplicating names - emprec is the name of the
general employee record structure and

employee is a particular example of this general
type. It might help to compare the situation with that of a
general int type and a particular
int variable such as count -
emprec is a type like int and

employee is a variable like
count. You can see that in general you can define
a structure using:

struct name
 {
  list of component variables
 };

and you can have as long a list of component variables as you
need. Once defined you can declare as many examples of the new
type as you like using:

struct name list of variables;

For example:

struct emprec employee, oldemploy,
newemploy;

and so on. If you want to you can also declare a structure
variable within the type definition by writing its name before
the final semi-colon. For example:

struct emprec
 {
   char name[25];
   int age;
   int pay;
 } employee;

defines the structure and declares a structure variable called
employee. The only trouble with this form is that
not many C programmers use it and many will even think
that it is an error! So how do we use a
struct?

When you first start working with arrays it seems obvious that
you access the individual elements of the array using an index as
in a[i] for the ith element of the array, but how
to get at the individual components of a structure? The answer is
that you have to use qualified names. You first give the name of
the structure variable and then the name of the component
separated by a dot. For example, given:

struct emprec employee

then:

employee.age

is an int and:

employee.name

is a char array. Once you have used a
qualified name to get down to the level of a component then it
behaves like a normal variable of the type. For example:

employee.age=32;

is a valid assignment to an int and:

employee.name[2] = 'X';

is a valid assignment to an element of the
char array. Notice that the qualified name uses
the structure variable name and not the structure type name. You
can also define a structure that includes another structure as a
component and of course that structure can contain another
structure and so on. In this case you simply use the name of each
structure in turn, separated by dots, until you reach a final
component that isn't a structure. For example, if you declare a

struct firm which includes a component
employee which is an emprec
then:

firm.employee.age

is an int. You may be feeling a little
disappointed at the way in which structures are used. When you
first meet arrays it is obvious how useful they are because the
array index is an integer which can be used within a loop to
process vast amounts of data in a few lines of code. When you
first meet the struct it just doesn't have the
same obvious advantages. Because you have to write out a full
qualified name to get at each of the components of the

struct you can't automate the processing in the
same way. However this is reasonable enough when you remember
that each component of a struct can be a
different data type! The point is that the value of a
struct is different to that of an array. A
struct can be used to wrap up a group of
variables which form a coherent entity.

For example, C has no facilities for manipulating
complex numbers but this is easy enough to put right using a
struct and a few functions. A complex number is
composed of two parts - a real and imaginary part - which can be
implemented as single or double precision values. This suggests
defining a new struct type:

struct comp
 {
   float real;
   float imag;
 };

After this you can declare new complex variables using
something like:

struct comp a,b;

The new complex variables cannot be used as if they were
simple variables - because they are not. Most versions, of the
C language do allow you to assign structures so you could
write:

a=b;

as shorthand for

a.real=b.real;
 a.imag=b.imag;

Being able to assign structures is even more useful when they
are bigger. However you can't expect C to sort out what
you mean by c = a + b - for this you have to
write out the rule for addition as:

c.real=a.real+b.real;
 c.imag=a.imag+b.imag;

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Structures and Functions

Of course a sensible alternative to writing out the addition each
time is to define a function to do the same job - but this raises
the question of passing structures as parameters. Fortunately
this isn't a big problem. Most C compilers, will allow you
to pass entire structures as parameters and return entire
structures. As with all C parameters structures are passed
by value and so if you want to allow a function to alter a
parameter you have to remember to pass a pointer to
a struct. Given that you can pass and return
structs the function is fairly easy:

struct comp add(struct comp a , struct comp b)
{
 struct comp c;
 c.real=a.real+b.real;
 c.imag=a.imag+ b.imag;
 return c;
}

After you have defined the add function you can write a
complex addition as:

x=add(y,z)

which isn't too far from the x=y+z that you
would really like to use. Finally notice that passing a
struct by value might use up rather a lot of
memory as a complete copy of the structure is made for the
function.

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Pointers to Structures

You can define a pointer to a structure in the same way as any
pointer to any type. For example:

struct emprec *ptr

defines a pointer to an emprec. You can use a
pointer to a struct in more or less the same way
as any pointer but the use of qualified names makes it look
slightly different For example:

(*ptr).age

is the age component of the emprec structure
that ptr points at - i.e. an int.
You need the brackets because '.' has a higher priority than '*'.
The use of a pointer to a struct is so common,
and the pointer notation so ugly, that there is an equivalent and
more elegant way of writing the same thing. You can use:

prt->age

to mean the same thing as (*ptr).age. The
notation gives a clearer idea of what is going on -
prt points (i.e. ->) to the
structure and .age picks out which component of
the structure we want. Interestingly until C++ became
popular the -> notation was relatively rare
and given that many C text books hardly mentioned it this
confused many experienced C programmers!

There are many reasons for using a pointer to a
struct but one is to make two way communication
possible within functions. For example, an alternative way of
writing the complex number addition function is:

void comp add(struct comp *a , struct comp *b , struct comp *c)
 {
  c->real=a->real+b->real;
  c->imag=a->imag+b->imag;
 }

In this case c is now a pointer to a
comp struct and the function would be used
as:

add(&x,&y,&z);

Notice that in this case the address of each of the structures
is passed rather than a complete copy of the structure - hence
the saving in space. Also notice that the function can now change
the values of x, y and

z if it wants to. It's up to you to decide if
this is a good thing or not!

---

Malloc

Now we come to a topic that is perhaps potentially the most
confusing. So far we have allowed the C compiler to work
out how to allocate storage. For example when you declare a
variable:

int a;

the compiler sorts out how to set aside some memory to store
the integer. More impressive is the way that

int a[50]

sets aside enough storage for 50 ints and sets
the name a to point to the first element. Clever
though this may be it is just static storage. That is the storage
is allocated by the compiler before the program is run - but what
can you do if you need or want to create new variables as your
program is running? The answer is to use pointers
and the malloc function. The statement:

ptr=malloc(size);

reserves size bytes of storage and sets the pointer
ptr to point to the start of it. This sounds
excessively primitive - who wants a few bytes of storage and a
pointer to it? You can make malloc look a little
more appealing with a few cosmetic changes. The first is that you
can use the sizeof function to allocate storage
in multiples of a given type. For example:

sizeof(int)

returns a number that specifies the number of bytes needed to
store an int. Using sizeof you
can allocate storage using malloc as:

ptr= malloc(sizeof(int)*N)

where N is the number of ints

you want to create. The only problem is what does
ptr point at? The compiler needs to know what the
pointer points at so that it can do pointer arithmetic correctly.
In other words, the compiler can only interpret
ptr++ or ptr=ptr+1 as an
instruction to move on to the next int if it
knows that the ptr is a pointer to an

int. This works as long as you define the
ptr to be a pointer to the type of variable that
you want to work with. Unfortunately this raises the question of
how malloc knows what the type of the
pointer variable is - unfortunately it doesn't.

To solve this problem you can use a TYPE cast.
This C play on words is a mechanism to force a value to a
specific type. All you have to do is write the TYPE

specifier in brackets before the value. So:

ptr = (*int) malloc(sizeof(int)*N)

forces the value returned by malloc to be a
pointer to int. Now you can see how a simple idea
ends up looking complicated. OK, so now we can acquire some
memory while the program is running, but how can we use it? There
are some simple ways of using it and some very subtle mistakes
that you can make in trying to use it! For example, suppose
during a program you suddenly decide that you need an
int array with 50 elements. You didn't know this
before the program started, perhaps because the information has
just been typed in by the user. The easiest solution is to
use:

int *ptr;

and then later on:

ptr = (*int) malloc(sizeof(int)*N)

where N is the number of elements that you
need. After this definition you can use ptr as if
it was a conventional array. For example:

ptr[i]

is the ith element of the array. The trap waiting for you to
make a mistake is when you need a few more elements of the array.
You can't simply use malloc again to get the
extra elements because the block of memory that the next
malloc allocates isn't necessarily next to the
last lot. In other words, it might not simply tag on to the end
of the first array and any assumption that it does might end in
the program simply overwriting areas of memory that it doesn't
own.

Another fun error that you are not protected against is losing
an area of memory. If you use malloc to reserve
memory it is vital that you don't lose the pointer to it. If you
do then that particular chunk of memory isn't available for your
program to use until it is restarted.

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Structures and Linked Lists

You may be wondering why malloc has been
introduced right after the structure. The answer is that the
dynamic allocation of memory and the struct go
together a bit like the array and the for loop.
The best way to explain how this all fits together is via a
simple example. You can use malloc to create as
many variables as you want as the program runs, but how do you
keep track of them? For every new variable you create you also
need an extra pointer to keep track of it. The solution to this
otherwise tricky problem is to define a struct

which has a pointer as one of its components. For example:

struct list
 {
  int data;
  struct list *ptr;
 };

This defines a structure which contains a single
int and - something that looks almost paradoxical
- a pointer to the structure that is being defined. All you
really need to know is that this is reasonable and it works. Now
if you use malloc to create a new
struct you also automatically get a new pointer
to the struct. The final part of the solution is
how to make use of the pointers. If you start off with a single
'starter' pointer to the struct you can create
the first new struct using malloc

as:

struct list *start;
start = (*struct list) malloc(sizeof(struct list))

After this start points to the first and only example of the
struct. You can store data in the struct using
statements like:

start->data=value;

The next step is to create a second example of the
struct:

start = (*struct list)
malloc(sizeof(list));

This does indeed give us a new struct but we
have now lost the original because the pointer to it has been
overwritten by the pointer to the new struct. To
avoid losing the original the simplest solution is to use:

struct list *start,newitem;
newitem = (*struct list) malloc(sizeof(struct list));
start->prt=start;
start=newitem;

This stores the location of the new struct in
newitem. Then it stores the pointer to the existing
struct into the newitem's pointer and sets
the start of the list to be the newitem. Finally
the start of the list is set to point at the new

struct. This procedure is repeated each time a
new structure is created with the result that a linked list of
structures is created. The pointer start always points to the
first struct in the list and the
prt component of this struct
points to the next and so on. You should be able to see how to
write a program that examines or prints the data in each of the
structures. For example:

thisptr=start;
while (1==1)
 {
  printf("%d",thisprt-> data);
  thisprt=thisprt->prt;
 }

This first sets thisptr to the start of the
list, prints the data in the first element and then gets the
pointer to the next struct in the list and so on.
How does the program know it has reached the end of the list? At
the moment it just keeps going into the deep and uncharted
regions of your machine's memory! To stop it we have to mark the
end of the list using a null pointer. Usually a pointer value of
0 is special in that it never occurs in a pointer pointing at a
valid area of memory. You can use 0 to initialise a pointer so
that you know it isn't pointing at anything real. So all we have
to do is set the last pointer in the list to 0 and then test for
it That is:

thisptr=start;
while (thisptr!=0)
 {
  printf("%d",thisprt->data);
  thisprt=thisprt-> prt;
 }

To be completely correct you should TYPE cast 0 to be a
pointer to the struct in question. That is:

while (thisptr!=(struct list*)0)

By generally mucking about with pointers

stored in the list you can rearrange it, access it, sort it,
delete items and do anything you want to. Notice that the
structures in the list can be as complicated as you like and,
subject to there being enough memory, you can create as many
structures as you like.

You can use the same sort of technique to create even more
complicated list structures. For example you can introduce
another pointer into each structure and a pointer to the end of
the list so that you can work your way along it in the other
direction - a doubly linked list. You can create
stacks, queues, trees and so
on. The rest of the story is a matter of either inventing these
data structures for yourself or looking them up in a suitable
book.

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Structures and C++

The reason why structures are even more important for today's
budding C programmer is that they turn into classes
in C++. A class is a structure where you can define
components that are functions. In this case the same distinction
between a data TYPE and an example of the TYPE,
i.e. a variable, is maintained only now the instances of the
class include functions as well as data. The same
qualified naming system applies to the class and the use
of pointers and the -> operator. As this is
the basis of C++'s object-oriented features it is
important to understand.

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Header Files

The final mystery of C that needs to be discussed is the
header file. This started off as a simple idea, a
convenience to make programming easier. If you have a standard
set of instructions that you want to insert in a lot of programs
that you are writing then you can do it using the
#include statement.

The # symbol at the start indicates that this
isn't a C statement but one for the C pre-processor
which looks at the text file before the compiler gets it. The
#include tells the pre-processor to read in a
text file and treat it as if it was part of the program's text.
For example:

#include "copy.txt"

could be used to include a copyright notice stored in the file
copy.txt. However the most common use of the
#include is to define constants and
macros. The C pre-processor is almost a
language in its own right For example, if you define the
identifier NULL as:

#define NULL 0

then whenever you use NULL in your program the
pre-processor substitutes 0. In most cases you want these
definitions to be included in all your programs and so the
obvious thing to do is to create a separate file that you can
#include.

This idea of using standard include files has spiralled out of
all proportions. Now such include files are called header
files and they are distinguished by ending in the
extension .h. A header file is generally used to
define all of the functions, variables and constants contained in
any function library that you might want to use. The header file

stdio.h should be used if you want to use the two
standard I/O functions printf and
scanf. The standard libraries have been covered
in a previous section.

This sort of use of header files is simple enough but over
time more and more standard elements of the C environment
have been moved into header files. The result is that header
files become increasingly mysterious to the beginner. Perhaps
they reach their ultimate in complexity as part of the Windows
development environment So many constants and macros are defined
in the Windows header files that they amount to hundreds of
lines! As another example of how you could use a header file
consider the complex structure defined earlier. At the moment it
looks messy to declare a new complex variable as:

struct comp a,b;

If you want to make the complex TYPE look like other data
types all you need is a single #define

#define COMPLEX struct comp

After this you can write:

COMPLEX a,b;

and the pre-processor will automatically replace
COMPLEX by struct comp for you
when you compile the program. Put this #define

and any others needed to make the complex number type work and
you have the makings of a complex.h header file of your very own.